Aircraft Propulsion Systems Technology and Design

marinecorps

Aircraft Propulsion Systems Technology and Design  
TABLE OF CONTENTS
iii Foreword
3 Chapter 1. Design and Development of Aircraft Propulsion
Systems, R. 0. Bullock
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Engine Design Objectives
1.3 Effect of Thermodynamic Variables on Engine Performance
1.4 Development of Thrust
1.5 Off-Design Performance of Gas Turbine Propulsion Engines
1.6 Losses in Available Energy
1.7 Interrelations Among Aerodynamic Components
1.8 Interaction with Other Specialties
1.9 Advanced Flow Calculations
1.10 Biography of a Typical Engine
105 Chapter 2. Turbopropulsion Combustion Technology,
R. E. Henderson and W. S. Blazowski
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Combustion System Description/Definitions
2.3 Component Considerations
2.4 Design Tools
2.5 Future Requirements
2.6 Conclusions
169 Chapter 3. Engine/Airframe Performance Matching, D. B. Morden
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Mission Analysis
3.3 Optimization of Engine/Airplane Match
3.4 Sensitivity and Influence Coefficients
3.5 Computer Simulation of Gas Turbine Engines
241 Chapter 4. Inlets and Inlet/Engine Integration, J. L. Younghans
and D. L. Paul
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Elements of a Successful Inlet/Engine Integration Program
4.3 Definition of Subsonic Inlet/Engine Operational Requirements
4.4 Definition of Supersonic Inlet/Engine Operational Requirements
4.5 Engine Impact on Inlet Design
4.6 Inlet Impact on Engine Design
4.7 Validation of Inlet/Engine System
301 Chapter 5. Variable Convergent-Divergent Exhaust Nozzle
Aerodynamics, A. P. Kuchar
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Nozzle Concept
5.3 Performance Predictions
5.4 Aerodynamic Load Predictions
339 Chapter 6. Engine Operability, 141. G. Steenken
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Definitions
6.3 Stability Assessment
6.4 Aerodynamic Interface Plane
6.5 Total Pressure Distortion
6.6 Total Temperature Distortion
6.7 Planar Waves
6.8 Recoverability
6.9 Analytical Techniques
6.10 Summary
385 Chapter 7. Aeroelasticity and Unsteady Aerodynamics, F. O. Carta
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Overview of Turbomachinery Flutter
7.3 Brief Survey of Turbomachinery Flutter Regimes
7.4 Elementary Considerations of Aircraft Wing Flutter
7.5 Fundamental Differences Between Turbomachinery Flutter and
Wing Flutter
7.6 Fundamental of Unsteady Aerodynamic Theory for Isolated
Airfoils
7.7 Unsteady Aerodynamic Theory for Cascaded Airfoils
7.8 Dynamic Stall-Empiricism and Experiment
7.9 Coupled Blade-Disk-Shroud Stability Theory
525 Subject Index

1.1 INTRODUCTION
This is the third of three volumes reviewing the application of aerodynamic
and thermodynamic principles to the gas turbines used in aircraft
propulsion. The first volume ~ addresses cycle analysis and its use for
establishing the design and off-design behavior of engines. Pertinent elements
of the aerodynamic and thermodynamic theory applicable to engines
are also presented. It also reviews the basic concepts of rocket engines,
The second volume 2 is primarily directed to the appropriate aerodynamic
and thermodynamic phenomena associated with the components of propulsion
engines. Important information about turbine cooling is included. This
volume also reveals the status of the continuingly developing techniques for
necessary boundary-layer analysis and includes a chapter about the aerodynamic
development of engine noise. In addition, two chapters are
devoted to the combustion of fuel: one on the fundamentals and the other
on their application to afterburners.
The subject of combustion is continued in the second chapter of the
present volume. It presents a detailed account of the important items
involved in the design of primary combustion chambers. The rest of this
volume is aimed at demonstrating how the design and behavior of engines
is influenced by the goals of various aircraft and the environments provided
to the engine by the aircraft. It examines how freedom in the design of
aircraft is restricted by the inherent characteristics of engines. This volume
also offers an extensive review of how the often conflicting requirements of
engines and airplane aerodynamics are reconciled to the needs of the user
to obtain a viable product.
This introductory chapter aims at integrating the technical material
presented in three volumes by outlining some of the steps involved in the
selection, design, and development of an engine. This integration begins
with the considerations of the role played by engines. A discussion of
factors affecting the selection of the engine cycle variables follows. The
considerations governing the selection of rotative speed and the size of the
gas turbine components, including the care that must be taken in the
arrangement of the components, are reviewed. Special note is made of the
causes of losses and their effect on engine performance. The chapter ends
with a prognosis about future improvements and opportunities and a
description of typical problems encountered during engine development.
An appendix offers a brief description of the distinguishing features of
centrifugal compressors. They are used in many propulsion engines and no
other reference is made to them in this series.
We recognize that many computer programs have been created for
treating these and related topics. Some of the programs are proprietary;
6 AIRCRAFT PROPULSION SYSTEMS
others can be purchased on the open market. Since specific calculating
procedures are available, this chapter is written to enhance the reader's
awareness of the governing physical concepts rather than to present
working equations.
1.2 ENGINE DESIGN OBJECTIVES
All aircraft represent an investment of money for an anticipated profit. It
is evident that commercial aircraft are built and bought to earn a monetary
return on an investment. Although the revenue derived from investment is
less tangible for many military aircraft, these too are expected to provide
some kind of an identifiable payoff that can be expressed in terms of
money. An appropriate economic analysis, therefore, always precedes a
decision to design, develop, and manufacture a new or a modified type of
aircraft engine. The costs considered include all of the expenses of acquiring
and servicing the aircraft involved as well as the engine.
A necessary part of the economic study is the execution of a preliminary
design of the proposed vehicle and its powerplant. Chapter 3 of this volume
as well as Ref. 3 review the many details that must be considered during
such a preliminary design.
Of special interest is the impact that an engine and its fuel requirements
have on the results of such economic studies. In long-range airplanes, for
example, the required fuel weight may be four times the weight of the
payload. The value of the low fuel consumption by these engines is obvious.
At the same time, the engines in these airplanes themselves may weigh more
than 40% of the payload. The additional airplane structure required to
support both the engines and fuel is thus over four and one-half times that
of the payload for which the airplane is intended. We now note that the
weight of fuel demanded for any given flight is indicated by the following
form of the Breguet range equation (see Chapter 3 of this volume):
range -1
Wfuel = 1 -- exp (1.1)
Wto JHr [(r/Er/e)(L ID)AvJ
This ratio can be as high at 0.4 for long-range airplanes. Notice that
(L/D)A v is optimized by aerodynamic considerations. Propulsive efficiency
can be expressed as (see Chapter 5 of Ref. 1)
1
qe (1.2)
(Fs/2WEVo) + 1
This efficiency depends upon F/14 I, which varies with the type of engine
(turbojet, turbofan, or propeller). It also depends upon the characteristics
of the nozzles or propellers selected by the airplane manufacturer.
Chapter 7 of Ref. 1 examines some of the factors controlling engine
efficiency, and these will be mentioned again in the next section. At the
moment, it is sufficient to note that this efficiency is almost completely
determined by the engine design and the operating regime of the airplane.
Prolonged and expensive research has yielded impressive improvements
in engine efficiency and more gains are expected in the future. It can be

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