NASA 系统管理手册

Gatsby · 发表于 2012-9-22 18:46:06

边学边看的适用，老师推荐的

NASA/SP-2007-6105
Rev1
NASA Systems Engineering Handbook
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASA Headquarters
Washington, D.C. 20546
December 2007

Table of Contents
Preface...............................................................................................................................................................xiii
Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................................................xv
1.0 Introduction................................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Purpose........................................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Scope and Depth......................................................................................................................................................... 1
2.0 Fundamentals of Systems Engineering......................................................................................................3
2.1 The Common Technical Processes and the SE Engine.......................................................................................... 4
2.2 An Overview of the SE Engine by Project Phase.................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Example of Using the SE Engine............................................................................................................................... 7
2.3.1 Detailed Example............................................................................................................................................ 8
2.3.2 Example Premise............................................................................................................................................. 8
2.3.2.1 Example Phase A System Design Passes....................................................................................... 8
2.3.2.2 Example Product Realization Passes............................................................................................ 12
2.3.2.3 Example Use of the SE Engine in Phases B Through D............................................................. 14
2.3.2.4 Example Use of the SE Engine in Phases E and F...................................................................... 14
2.4 Distinctions Between Product Verification and Product Validation................................................................. 15
2.5 Cost Aspect of Systems Engineering...................................................................................................................... 16
3.0 NASA Program/Project Life Cycle............................................................................................................. 19
3.1 Program Formulation............................................................................................................................................... 19
3.2 Program Implementation........................................................................................................................................ 21
3.3 Project Pre-Phase A: Concept Studies................................................................................................................... 22
3.4 Project Phase A: Concept and Technology Development................................................................................... 22
3.5 Project Phase B: Preliminary Design and Technology Completion.................................................................. 24
3.6 Project Phase C: Final Design and Fabrication..................................................................................................... 25
3.7 Project Phase D: System Assembly, Integration and Test, Launch..................................................................... 25
3.8 Project Phase E: Operations and Sustainment...................................................................................................... 28
3.9 Project Phase F: Closeout........................................................................................................................................ 28
3.10 Funding: The Budget Cycle...................................................................................................................................... 29
4.0 System Design.......................................................................................................................................... 31
4.1 Stakeholder Expectations Definition...................................................................................................................... 33
4.1.1 Process Description...................................................................................................................................... 33
4.1.1.1 Inputs............................................................................................................................................... 33
4.1.1.2 Process Activities............................................................................................................................ 33
4.1.1.3 Outputs............................................................................................................................................ 35
4.1.2 Stakeholder Expectations Definition Guidance........................................................................................ 35
4.1.2.1 Concept of Operations................................................................................................................... 35
4.2 Technical Requirements Definition........................................................................................................................ 40
4.2.1 Process Description...................................................................................................................................... 40
4.2.1.1 Inputs............................................................................................................................................... 41
4.2.1.2 Process Activities............................................................................................................................ 41
4.2.1.3 Outputs............................................................................................................................................ 41
4.2.2 Technical Requirements Definition Guidance.......................................................................................... 41
4.2.2.1 Types of Requirements.................................................................................................................. 41
iv  NASA Systems Engineering Handbook
Table of Contents
4.2.2.2 Human Factors Engineering Requirements................................................................................ 45
4.2.2.3 Requirements Decomposition, Allocation, and Validation...................................................... 45
4.2.2.4 Capturing Requirements and the Requirements Database....................................................... 47
4.2.2.5 Technical Standards....................................................................................................................... 47
4.3 Logical Decomposition............................................................................................................................................ 49
4.3.1 Process Description ..................................................................................................................................... 49
4.3.1.1 Inputs............................................................................................................................................... 49
4.3.1.2 Process Activities............................................................................................................................ 49
4.3.1.3 Outputs............................................................................................................................................ 51
4.3.2 Logical Decomposition Guidance.............................................................................................................. 52
4.3.2.1 Product Breakdown Structure...................................................................................................... 52
4.3.2.2 Functional Analysis Techniques................................................................................................... 52
4.4 Design Solution Definition........................................................................................................................................ 55
4.4.1 Process Description......................................................................................................................................... 55
4.4.1.1 Inputs................................................................................................................................................. 55
4.4.1.2 Process Activities.............................................................................................................................. 56
4.4.1.3 Outputs.............................................................................................................................................. 61
4.4.2 Design Solution Definition Guidance.......................................................................................................... 62
4.4.2.1 Technology Assessment................................................................................................................. 62
4.4.2.2 Integrating Engineering Specialties into the Systems Engineering Process........................... 62
5.0 Product Realization.................................................................................................................................. 71
5.1 Product Implementation.......................................................................................................................................... 73
5.1.1 Process Description...................................................................................................................................... 73
5.1.1.1 Inputs............................................................................................................................................... 73
5.1.1.2 Process Activities ........................................................................................................................... 74
5.1.1.3 Outputs............................................................................................................................................ 75
5.1.2 Product Implementation Guidance............................................................................................................ 76
5.1.2.1 Buying Off-the-Shelf Products..................................................................................................... 76
5.1.2.2 Heritage............................................................................................................................................ 76
5.2 Product Integration.................................................................................................................................................. 78
5.2.1 Process Description...................................................................................................................................... 78
5.2.1.1 Inputs .............................................................................................................................................. 79
5.2.1.2 Process Activities............................................................................................................................ 79
5.2.1.3 Outputs............................................................................................................................................ 79
5.2.2 Product Integration Guidance.................................................................................................................... 80
5.2.2.1 Integration Strategy........................................................................................................................ 80
5.2.2.2 Relationship to Product Implementation ................................................................................... 80
5.2.2.3 Product/Interface Integration Support........................................................................................ 80
5.2.2.4 Product Integration of the Design Solution................................................................................ 81
5.2.2.5 Interface Management................................................................................................................... 81
5.2.2.6 Compatibility Analysis.................................................................................................................. 81
5.2.2.7 Interface Management Tasks......................................................................................................... 81
5.3 Product Verification ................................................................................................................................................ 83
5.3.1 Process Description...................................................................................................................................... 83
5.3.1.1 Inputs............................................................................................................................................... 83
5.3.1.2 Process Activities............................................................................................................................ 84
5.3.1.3 Outputs............................................................................................................................................ 89
5.3.2 Product Verification Guidance................................................................................................................... 89
5.3.2.1 Verification Program...................................................................................................................... 89
5.3.2.2 Verification in the Life Cycle......................................................................................................... 89
5.3.2.3 Verification Procedures ................................................................................................................ 92
Table of Contents
NASA Systems Engineering Handbook  v
5.3.2.4 Verification Reports....................................................................................................................... 93
5.3.2.5 End-to-End System Testing .......................................................................................................... 93
5.3.2.6 Modeling and Simulation.............................................................................................................. 96
5.3.2.7 Hardware-in-the-Loop.................................................................................................................. 96
5.4 Product Validation.................................................................................................................................................... 98
5.4.1 Process Description...................................................................................................................................... 98
5.4.1.1 Inputs............................................................................................................................................... 98
5.4.1.2 Process Activities............................................................................................................................ 99
5.4.1.3 Outputs.......................................................................................................................................... 104
5.4.2 Product Validation Guidance.................................................................................................................... 104
5.4.2.1 Modeling and Simulation............................................................................................................ 104
5.4.2.2 Software......................................................................................................................................... 104
5.5 Product Transition ................................................................................................................................................. 106
5.5.1 Process Description.................................................................................................................................... 106
5.5.1.1 Inputs............................................................................................................................................. 106
5.5.1.2 Process Activities.......................................................................................................................... 107
5.5.1.3 Outputs.......................................................................................................................................... 109
5.5.2 Product Transition Guidance.................................................................................................................... 110
5.5.2.1 Additional Product Transition Input Considerations............................................................. 110
5.5.2.2 After Product Transition to the End User—What Next?........................................................ 110
6.0 Crosscutting Technical Management................................................................................................... 111
6.1 Technical Planning................................................................................................................................................. 112
6.1.1 Process Description.................................................................................................................................... 112
6.1.1.1 Inputs............................................................................................................................................. 112
6.1.1.2 Process Activities.......................................................................................................................... 113
6.1.1.3 Outputs.......................................................................................................................................... 122
6.1.2 Technical Planning Guidance................................................................................................................... 122
6.1.2.1 Work Breakdown Structure......................................................................................................... 122
6.1.2.2 Cost Definition and Modeling.................................................................................................... 125
6.1.2.3 Lessons Learned ........................................................................................................................... 129
6.2 Requirements Management................................................................................................................................... 131
6.2.1 Process Description.................................................................................................................................... 131
6.2.1.1 Inputs............................................................................................................................................. 131
6.2.1.2 Process Activities.......................................................................................................................... 132
6.2.1.3 Outputs.......................................................................................................................................... 134
6.2.2 Requirements Management Guidance..................................................................................................... 134
6.2.2.1 Requirements Management Plan............................................................................................... 134
6.2.2.2 Requirements Management Tools.............................................................................................. 135
6.3 Interface Management........................................................................................................................................... 136
6.3.1 Process Description.................................................................................................................................... 136
6.3.1.1 Inputs............................................................................................................................................. 136
6.3.1.2 Process Activities.......................................................................................................................... 136
6.3.1.3 Outputs.......................................................................................................................................... 137
6.3.2 Interface Management Guidance.............................................................................................................. 137
6.3.2.1 Interface Requirements Document............................................................................................ 137
6.3.2.2 Interface Control Document or Interface Control Drawing.................................................. 137
6.3.2.3 Interface Definition Document ................................................................................................. 138
6.3.2.4 Interface Control Plan.................................................................................................................. 138
6.4 Technical Risk Management................................................................................................................................. 139
6.4.1 Process Description.................................................................................................................................... 140
6.4.1.1 Inputs............................................................................................................................................. 140
vi  NASA Systems Engineering Handbook
Table of Contents
6.4.1.2 Process Activities.......................................................................................................................... 140
6.4.1.3 Outputs.......................................................................................................................................... 141
6.4.2 Technical Risk Management Guidance.................................................................................................... 141
6.4.2.1 Role of Continuous Risk Management in Technical Risk Management .............................. 142
6.4.2.2 The Interface Between CRM and Risk-Informed Decision Analysis.................................... 142
6.4.2.3 Selection and Application of Appropriate Risk Methods........................................................ 143
6.5 Configuration Management ................................................................................................................................. 151
6.5.1 Process Description.................................................................................................................................... 151
6.5.1.1 Inputs............................................................................................................................................. 151
6.5.1.2 Process Activities.......................................................................................................................... 151
6.5.1.3 Outputs.......................................................................................................................................... 156
6.5.2 CM Guidance.............................................................................................................................................. 156
6.5.2.1 What Is the Impact of Not Doing CM?..................................................................................... 156
6.5.2.2 When Is It Acceptable to Use Redline Drawings?.................................................................... 157
6.6 Technical Data Management................................................................................................................................. 158
6.6.1 Process Description.................................................................................................................................... 158
6.6.1.1 Inputs............................................................................................................................................. 158
6.6.1.2 Process Activities......................................................................................................................... 158
6.6.1.3 Outputs.......................................................................................................................................... 162
6.6.2 Technical Data Management Guidance................................................................................................... 162
6.6.2.1 Data Security and ITAR............................................................................................................... 162
6.7 Technical Assessment............................................................................................................................................. 166
6.7.1 Process Description.................................................................................................................................... 166
6.7.1.1 Inputs............................................................................................................................................. 166
6.7.1.2 Process Activities.......................................................................................................................... 166
6.7.1.3 Outputs.......................................................................................................................................... 167
6.7.2 Technical Assessment Guidance............................................................................................................... 168
6.7.2.1 Reviews, Audits, and Key Decision Points ............................................................................... 168
6.7.2.2 Status Reporting and Assessment............................................................................................... 190
6.8 Decision Analysis.................................................................................................................................................... 197
6.8.1 Process Description.................................................................................................................................... 197
6.8.1.1 Inputs............................................................................................................................................. 198
6.8.1.2 Process Activities.......................................................................................................................... 199
6.8.1.3 Outputs.......................................................................................................................................... 202
6.8.2 Decision Analysis Guidance...................................................................................................................... 203
6.8.2.1 Systems Analysis, Simulation, and Performance...................................................................... 203
6.8.2.2 Trade Studies................................................................................................................................. 205
6.8.2.3 Cost-Benefit Analysis................................................................................................................... 209
6.8.2.4 Influence Diagrams...................................................................................................................... 210
6.8.2.5 Decision Trees............................................................................................................................... 210
6.8.2.6 Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis............................................................................................... 211
6.8.2.7 Utility Analysis.............................................................................................................................. 212
6.8.2.8 Risk-Informed Decision Analysis Process Example................................................................ 213
7.0 Special Topics......................................................................................................................................... 217
7.1 Engineering with Contracts.................................................................................................................................. 217
7.1.1 Introduction, Purpose, and Scope............................................................................................................ 217
7.1.2 Acquisition Strategy................................................................................................................................... 217
7.1.2.1 Develop an Acquisition Strategy................................................................................................ 218
7.1.2.2 Acquisition Life Cycle.................................................................................................................. 218
7.1.2.3 NASA Responsibility for Systems Engineering........................................................................ 218
7.1.3 Prior to Contract Award............................................................................................................................ 219
Table of Contents
NASA Systems Engineering Handbook  vii
7.1.3.1 Acquisition Planning................................................................................................................... 219
7.1.3.2 Develop the Statement of Work.................................................................................................. 223
7.1.3.3 Task Order Contracts................................................................................................................... 225
7.1.3.4 Surveillance Plan.......................................................................................................................... 225
7.1.3.5 Writing Proposal Instructions and Evaluation Criteria.......................................................... 226
7.1.3.6 Selection of COTS Products....................................................................................................... 226
7.1.3.7 Acquisition-Unique Risks .......................................................................................................... 227
7.1.4 During Contract Performance.................................................................................................................. 227
7.1.4.1 Performing Technical Surveillance ........................................................................................... 227
7.1.4.2 Evaluating Work Products........................................................................................................... 229
7.1.4.3 Issues with Contract-Subcontract Arrangements.................................................................... 229
7.1.5 Contract Completion ................................................................................................................................ 230
7.1.5.1 Acceptance of Final Deliverables................................................................................................ 230
7.1.5.2 Transition Management............................................................................................................... 231
7.1.5.3 Transition to Operations and Support....................................................................................... 232
7.1.5.4 Decommissioning and Disposal................................................................................................. 233
7.1.5.5 Final Evaluation of Contractor Performance............................................................................ 233
7.2 Integrated Design Facilities................................................................................................................................... 234
7.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 234
7.2.2 CACE Overview and Importance............................................................................................................. 234
7.2.3 CACE Purpose and Benefits...................................................................................................................... 235
7.2.4 CACE Staffing.............................................................................................................................................. 235
7.2.5 CACE Process.............................................................................................................................................. 236
7.2.5.1 Planning and Preparation............................................................................................................ 236
7.2.5.2 Activity Execution Phase............................................................................................................. 236
7.2.5.3 Activity Wrap-Up ........................................................................................................................ 237
7.2.6 CACE Engineering Tools and Techniques ............................................................................................. 237
7.2.7 CACE Facility, Information Infrastructure, and Staffing ..................................................................... 238
7.2.7.1 Facility............................................................................................................................................ 238
7.2.7.2 Information Infrastructure.......................................................................................................... 238
7.2.7.3 Facility Support Staff Responsibilities........................................................................................ 239
7.2.8 CACE Products .......................................................................................................................................... 239
7.2.9 CACE Best Practices................................................................................................................................... 239
7.2.9.1 People............................................................................................................................................. 240
7.2.9.2 Process and Tools......................................................................................................................... 240
7.2.9.3 Facility............................................................................................................................................ 240
7.3 Selecting Engineering Design Tools...................................................................................................................... 242
7.3.1 Program and Project Considerations....................................................................................................... 242
7.3.2 Policy and Processes................................................................................................................................... 242
7.3.3 Collaboration............................................................................................................................................... 242
7.3.4 Design Standards........................................................................................................................................ 243
7.3.5 Existing IT Architecture............................................................................................................................ 243
7.3.6 Tool Interfaces............................................................................................................................................. 243
7.3.7 Interoperability and Data Formats........................................................................................................... 243
7.3.8 Backward Compatibility............................................................................................................................ 244
7.3.9 Platform........................................................................................................................................................ 244
7.3.10 Tool Configuration Control....................................................................................................................... 244
7.3.11 Security/Access Control............................................................................................................................. 244
7.3.12 Training........................................................................................................................................................ 244
7.3.13 Licenses........................................................................................................................................................ 244
7.3.14 Stability of Vendor and Customer Support............................................................................................. 244
7.4 Human Factors Engineering................................................................................................................................. 246
viii  NASA Systems Engineering Handbook
Table of Contents
7.4.1 Basic HF Model........................................................................................................................................... 247
7.4.2 HF Analysis and Evaluation Techniques................................................................................................. 247
7.5 Environmental, Nuclear Safety, Planetary Protection, and Asset Protection Policy Compliance............... 256
7.5.1 NEPA and EO 12114.................................................................................................................................. 256
7.5.1.1 National Environmental Policy Act........................................................................................... 256
7.5.1.2 EO 12114 Environmental Effects Abroad of Major Federal Actions .................................... 257
7.5.2 PD/NSC-25.................................................................................................................................................. 257
7.5.3 Planetary Protection................................................................................................................................... 258
7.5.4 Space Asset Protection............................................................................................................................... 260
7.5.4.1 Protection Policy.......................................................................................................................... 260
7.5.4.2 Goal................................................................................................................................................ 260
7.5.4.3 Scoping........................................................................................................................................... 260
7.5.4.4 Protection Planning..................................................................................................................... 260
7.6 Use of Metric System ............................................................................................................................................. 261
Appendix A: Acronyms.................................................................................................................................. 263
Appendix B: Glossary.................................................................................................................................... 266
Appendix C: How to Write a Good Requirement......................................................................................... 279
Appendix D: Requirements Verification Matrix.......................................................................................... 282
Appendix E: Creating the Validation Plan (Including Validation Requirements Matrix)......................... 284
Appendix F: Functional, Timing, and State Analysis .................................................................................. 285
Appendix G: Technology Assessment/Insertion......................................................................................... 293
Appendix H: Integration Plan Outline......................................................................................................... 299
Appendix I: Verification and Validation Plan Sample Outline................................................................... 301
Appendix J: SEMP Content Outline.............................................................................................................. 303
Appendix K: Plans......................................................................................................................................... 308
Appendix L: Interface Requirements Document Outline........................................................................... 309
Appendix M: CM Plan Outline...................................................................................................................... 311
Appendix N: Guidance on Technical Peer Reviews/Inspections ............................................................... 312
Appendix O: Tradeoff Examples................................................................................................................... 316
Appendix P: SOW Review Checklist............................................................................................................. 317
Appendix Q: Project Protection Plan Outline............................................................................................. 321
References....................................................................................................................................................... 323
Bibliography................................................................................................................................................... 327
Index................................................................................................................................................................ 332
Table of Contents
NASA Systems Engineering Handbook  ix
Figures
2.0‑1 SE in context of overall project management....................................................................................................... 4
2.1‑1 The systems engineering engine............................................................................................................................. 5
2.2-1 A miniaturized conceptualization of the poster-size NASA project life-cycle process flow for
flight and ground systems accompanying this handbook.................................................................................. 6
2.3‑1 SE engine tracking icon........................................................................................................................................... 8
2.3‑2 Product hierarchy, tier 1: first pass through the SE engine................................................................................. 9
2.3‑3 Product hierarchy, tier 2: external tank............................................................................................................... 10
2.3‑4 Product hierarchy, tier 2: orbiter.......................................................................................................................... 10
2.3‑5 Product hierarchy, tier 3: avionics system........................................................................................................... 11
2.3‑6 Product hierarchy: complete pass through system design processes side of the SE engine......................... 11
2.3‑7 Model of typical activities during operational phase (Phase E) of a product................................................ 14
2.3‑8 New products or upgrades reentering the SE engine........................................................................................ 15
2.5‑1 The enveloping surface of nondominated designs............................................................................................. 16
2.5‑2 Estimates of outcomes to be obtained from several design concepts including uncertainty....................... 17
3.0‑1 NASA program life cycle....................................................................................................................................... 20
3.0‑2 NASA project life cycle.......................................................................................................................................... 20
3.10‑1 Typical NASA budget cycle ............................................................................................................................... 29
4.0‑1 Interrelationships among the system design processes..................................................................................... 31
4.1-1 Stakeholder Expectations Definition Process..................................................................................................... 33
4.1-2 Product flow for stakeholder expectations......................................................................................................... 34
4.1-3 Typical ConOps development for a science mission......................................................................................... 36
4.1-4 Example of an associated end-to-end operational architecture ...................................................................... 36
4.1-5a Example of a lunar sortie timeline developed early in the life cycle............................................................. 37
4.1-5b Example of a lunar sortie DRM early in the life cycle..................................................................................... 37
4.1-6 Example of a more detailed, integrated timeline later in the life cycle for a science mission...................... 38
4.2-1 Technical Requirements Definition Process....................................................................................................... 40
4.2-2 Characteristics of functional, operational, reliability, safety, and specialty requirements............................ 43
4.2-3 The flowdown of requirements............................................................................................................................. 46
4.2-4 Allocation and flowdown of science pointing requirements............................................................................ 47
4.3-1 Logical Decomposition Process........................................................................................................................... 49
4.3-2 Example of a PBS.................................................................................................................................................... 52
4.3-3 Example of a functional flow block diagram...................................................................................................... 53
4.3-4 Example of an N2 diagram................................................................................................................................... 54
4.4-1 Design Solution Definition Process ..................................................................................................................... 55
4.4-2 The doctrine of successive refinement.................................................................................................................. 56
4.4-3 A quantitative objective function, dependent on life-cycle cost and all aspects of effectiveness................. 58
5.0-1 Product realization................................................................................................................................................. 71
5.1-1 Product Implementation Process......................................................................................................................... 73
5.2-1 Product Integration Process................................................................................................................................. 78
5.3-1 Product Verification Process................................................................................................................................ 84
5.3-2 Bottom-up realization process............................................................................................................................. 90
5.3-3 Example of end-to-end data flow for a scientific satellite mission.................................................................. 94
5.4-1 Product Validation Process................................................................................................................................... 99
5.5-1 Product Transition Process................................................................................................................................. 106
6.1-1 Technical Planning Process................................................................................................................................ 112
6.1-2 Activity-on-arrow and precedence diagrams for network schedules........................................................... 116
6.1-3 Gantt chart............................................................................................................................................................ 118
6.1-4 Relationship between a system, a PBS, and a WBS......................................................................................... 123
6.1-5 Examples of WBS development errors.............................................................................................................. 125
6.2-1 Requirements Management Process.................................................................................................................. 131
6.3-1 Interface Management Process........................................................................................................................... 136
x  NASA Systems Engineering Handbook
Table of Contents
6.4-1 Technical Risk Management Process................................................................................................................. 140
6.4-2 Scenario-based modeling of hazards................................................................................................................. 141
6.4-3 Risk as a set of triplets ......................................................................................................................................... 141
6.4-4 Continuous risk management............................................................................................................................ 142
6.4-5 The interface between CRM and risk-informed decision analysis................................................................ 143
6.4-6 Risk analysis of decision alternatives................................................................................................................. 144
6.4-7 Risk matrix............................................................................................................................................................ 145
6.4-8 Example of a fault tree......................................................................................................................................... 146
6.4-9 Deliberation.......................................................................................................................................................... 147
6.4-10 Performance monitoring and control of deviations...................................................................................... 149
6.4-11 Margin management method........................................................................................................................... 150
6.5-1 CM Process........................................................................................................................................................... 151
6.5-2 Five elements of configuration management................................................................................................... 152
6.5-3 Evolution of technical baseline........................................................................................................................... 153
6.5-4 Typical change control process........................................................................................................................... 155
6.6-1 Technical Data Management Process................................................................................................................ 158
6.7-1 Technical Assessment Process............................................................................................................................ 166
6.7-2 Planning and status reportingfeedback loop.................................................................................................... 167
6.7-3 Cost and schedule variances............................................................................................................................... 190
6.7-4 Relationships of MOEs, MOPs,and TPMs........................................................................................................ 192
6.7-5 Use of the planned profile method for the weight TPM with rebaseline in Chandra Project................... 194
6.7-6 Use of the margin management method for the mass TPM in Sojourner................................................... 194
6.8-1 Decision Analysis Process................................................................................................................................... 198
6.8-2 Example of a decision matrix ............................................................................................................................ 201
6.8-3 Systems analysis across the life cycle................................................................................................................. 203
6.8-4 Simulation model analysis techniques.............................................................................................................. 204
6.8-5 Trade study process.............................................................................................................................................. 205
6.8-6 Influence diagrams............................................................................................................................................... 210
6.8-7 Decision tree......................................................................................................................................................... 211
6.8-8 Utility function for a “volume” performance measure.................................................................................... 213
6.8-9 Risk-informed Decision Analysis Process........................................................................................................ 214
6.8-10 Example of an objectives hierarchy................................................................................................................. 215
7.1-1 Acquisition life cycle ........................................................................................................................................... 218
7.1-2 Contract requirements development process................................................................................................... 223
7.2-1 CACE people/process/tools/facility paradigm................................................................................................. 234
7.4-1 Human factors interaction model...................................................................................................................... 247
7.4-2 HF engineering process and its links to the NASA program/project life cycle........................................... 248
F-1 FFBD flowdown...................................................................................................................................................... 286
F-2 FFBD: example 1..................................................................................................................................................... 287
F-3 FFBD showing additional control constructs: example 2.................................................................................. 287
F-4 Enhanced FFBD: example 3................................................................................................................................... 288
F-5 Requirements allocation sheet.............................................................................................................................. 289
F-6 N2 diagram for orbital equipment ....................................................................................................................... 289
F-7 Timing diagram example....................................................................................................................................... 290
F-8 Slew command status state diagram..................................................................................................................... 291
G-1 PBS example............................................................................................................................................................ 294
G-2 Technology assessment process............................................................................................................................ 295
G-3 Architectural studies and technology development.......................................................................................... 296
G-4 Technology readiness levels.................................................................................................................................. 296
G-5 The TMA thought process.................................................................................................................................... 297
G-6 TRL assessment matrix.......................................................................................................................................... 298
N-1 The peer review/inspection process..................................................................................................................... 312
Table of Contents
NASA Systems Engineering Handbook  xi
N-2 Peer reviews/inspections quick reference guide................................................................................................ 315
Tables
2.3‑1 Project Life-Cycle Phases........................................................................................................................................ 7
4.1‑1 Typical Operational Phases for a NASA Mission.............................................................................................. 39
4.2-1 Benefits of Well-Written Requirements.............................................................................................................. 42
4.2‑2 Requirements Metadata........................................................................................................................................ 48
4.4-1 ILS Technical Disciplines....................................................................................................................................... 66
6.6‑1 Technical Data Tasks........................................................................................................................................... 163
6.7-1 Program Technical Reviews................................................................................................................................ 170
6.7‑2 P/SRR Entrance and Success Criteria................................................................................................................ 171
6.7‑3 P/SDR Entrance and Success Criteria............................................................................................................... 172
6.7‑4 MCR Entrance and Success Criteria.................................................................................................................. 173
6.7‑5 SRR Entrance and Success Criteria.................................................................................................................... 174
6.7‑6 MDR Entrance and Success Criteria................................................................................................................. 175
6.7‑7 SDR Entrance and Success Criteria................................................................................................................... 176
6.7‑8 PDR Entrance and Success Criteria................................................................................................................... 177
6.7‑9 CDR Entrance and Success Criteria.................................................................................................................. 178
6.7‑10 PRR Entrance and Success Criteria................................................................................................................. 179
6.7‑11 SIR Entrance and Success Criteria................................................................................................................... 180
6.7‑12 TRR Entrance and Success Criteria................................................................................................................. 181
6.7‑13 SAR Entrance and Success Criteria................................................................................................................. 182
6.7‑14 ORR Entrance and Success Criteria ............................................................................................................... 183
6.7‑15 FRR Entrance and Success Criteria ................................................................................................................ 184
6.7‑16 PLAR Entrance and Success Criteria ............................................................................................................. 185
6.7‑17 CERR Entrance and Success Criteria.............................................................................................................. 186
6.7‑18 PFAR Entrance and Success Criteria............................................................................................................... 186
6.7‑19 DR Entrance and Success Criteria................................................................................................................... 187
6.7‑20 Functional and Physical Configuration Audits ............................................................................................. 189
6.7‑21 Systems Engineering Process Metrics............................................................................................................. 196
6.8‑1 Consequence Table.............................................................................................................................................. 199
6.8‑2 Typical Information to Capture in a Decision Report ................................................................................... 202
7.1-1 Applying the Technical Processes on Contract................................................................................................ 220
7.1-2 Steps in the Requirements Development Process ........................................................................................... 224
7.1‑3 Proposal Evaluation Criteria.............................................................................................................................. 227
7.1‑4 Risks in Acquisition............................................................................................................................................. 228
7.1‑5 Typical Work Product Documents.................................................................................................................... 230
7.1‑6 Contract-Subcontract Issues............................................................................................................................... 231
7.4-1 Human and Organizational Analysis Techniques .......................................................................................... 249
7.5‑1 Planetary Protection Mission Categories.......................................................................................................... 259
7.5‑2 Summarized Planetary Protection Requirements........................................................................................... 259
D-1 Requirements Verification Matrix....................................................................................................................... 283
E-1 Validation Requirements Matrix.......................................................................................................................... 284
G-1 Products Provided by the TA as a Function of Program/Project Phase......................................................... 294
H-1 Integration Plan Contents..................................................................................................................................... 300
M-1 CM Plan Outline................................................................................................................................................... 311
O-1 Typical Tradeoffs for Space Systems.................................................................................................................... 316
O-2 Typical Tradeoffs in the Acquisition Process..................................................................................................... 316
O-3 Typical Tradeoffs Throughout the Project Life Cycle........................................................................................ 316
xii  NASA Systems Engineering Handbook
Table of Contents
Boxes
System Cost, Effectiveness, and Cost-Effectiveness...................................................................................................... 16
The Systems Engineer’s Dilemma................................................................................................................................... 17
Program Formulation....................................................................................................................................................... 21
Program Implementation................................................................................................................................................. 21
Pre-Phase A: Concept Studies......................................................................................................................................... 22
Phase A: Concept and Technology Development......................................................................................................... 23
Phase B: Preliminary Design and Technology Completion........................................................................................ 24
Phase C: Final Design and Fabrication.......................................................................................................................... 26
Phase D: System Assembly, Integration and Test, Launch........................................................................................... 27
Phase E: Operations and Sustainment............................................................................................................................ 28
Phase F: Closeout.............................................................................................................................................................. 28
System Design Keys.......................................................................................................................................................... 32
Example of Functional and Performance Requirements............................................................................................. 43
Rationale............................................................................................................................................................................. 48
DOD Architecture Framework....................................................................................................................................... 51
Prototypes.......................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Product Realization Keys................................................................................................................................................. 72
Differences Between Verification and Validation Testing............................................................................................ 83
Types of Testing................................................................................................................................................................. 85
Types of Verification......................................................................................................................................................... 86
Differences Between Verification and Validation Testing............................................................................................ 98
Types of Validation......................................................................................................................................................... 100
Examples of Enabling Products and Support Resources for Preparing to Conduct Validation........................... 102
Model Verification and Validation................................................................................................................................ 104
Crosscutting Technical Management Keys.................................................................................................................. 111
Gantt Chart Features....................................................................................................................................................... 117
WBS Hierarchies for Systems........................................................................................................................................ 126
Definitions........................................................................................................................................................................ 132
Typical Interface Management Checklist..................................................................................................................... 138
Key Concepts in Technical Risk Management ........................................................................................................... 139
Example Sources of Risk................................................................................................................................................ 145
Limitations of Risk Matrices.......................................................................................................................................... 145
Types of Configuration Change Management Changes............................................................................................ 154
Warning Signs/Red Flags (How Do You Know When You’re in Trouble?)............................................................. 156
Redlines Were identified as One of the Major Causes of the NOAA N-Prime Mishap........................................ 157
Inappropriate Uses of Technical Data........................................................................................................................... 160
Data Collection Checklist.............................................................................................................................................. 162
Termination Review........................................................................................................................................................ 169
Analyzing the Estimate at Completion........................................................................................................................ 191
Examples of Technical Performance Measures .......................................................................................................... 193
An Example of a Trade Tree for a Mars Rover............................................................................................................ 207
Trade Study Reports........................................................................................................................................................ 208
Solicitations...................................................................................................................................................................... 219
Source Evaluation Board................................................................................................................................................ 226
Context Diagrams........................................................................................................................................................... 292